Understanding Internal and External Validity

Understanding Internal and External Validity Basics Print Understanding Internal and External Validity How These Concepts Are Applied in Research By Arlin Cuncic Arlin Cuncic, MA, is the author of Therapy in Focus: What to Expect from CBT for Social Anxiety Disorder and 7 Weeks to Reduce Anxiety. Learn about our editorial policy Arlin Cuncic Medically reviewed by Medically reviewed by Steven Gans, MD on March 05, 2019 Steven Gans, MD is board-certified in psychiatry and is an active supervisor, teacher, and mentor at Massachusetts General Hospital. Learn about our Medical Review Board Steven Gans, MD Updated on January 26, 2020  Andresr  /  Getty Images More in Psychology Basics Psychotherapy Student Resources History and Biographies Theories Phobias Emotions Sleep and Dreaming In This Article Table of Contents Expand Internal Validity External Validity Similarities and Differences Examples View All Back To Top Internal and external validity are concepts that reflect whether or not the results of a study are trustworthy and meaningful. While internal validity relates to how well a study is conducted (its structure), external validity relates to how applicable the findings are to the real world. Internal Validity Internal validity is the extent to which a study establishes a trustworthy cause-and-effect relationship between a treatment and an outcome.?? It also reflects that a given study makes it possible to eliminate alternative explanations for a finding. For example, if you implement a smoking cessation program with a group of individuals, how sure can you be that any improvement seen in the treatment group is due to the treatment that you administered? Internal validity depends largely on the procedures of a study and how rigorously it is performed. Internal validity is not a yes or no type of concept. Instead, we consider how confident we can be with the findings of a study, based on whether it avoids traps that may make the findings questionable. The less chance there is for confounding in a study, the higher the internal validity and the more confident we can be in the findings. Confounding refers to a situation in which other factors come into play that confuses the outcome of a study. For instance, a study might make us unsure as to whether we can trust that we have identified the above cause-and-effect scenario. In short, you can only be confident that your study is internally valid if you can rule out alternative explanations for your findings. As a brief summary, you can only assume cause-and-effect when you meet the following three criteria in your study: The cause preceded the effect in terms of time.The cause and effect vary together.There are no other likely explanations for this relationship that you have observed. Factors That Improve Internal Validity If you are looking to improve the internal validity of a study, you will want to consider aspects of your research design that will make it more likely that you can reject alternative hypotheses. There are many factors that can improve internal validity. Randomization refers to randomly assigning participants to treatment and control groups, and ensures that there is not any systematic bias between groups.Random selection of participants refers to choosing your participants at random or in a manner in which they are representative of the population that you wish to study.Blinding in a study refers to participantsâ€"and sometimes researchersâ€"being unaware of what intervention they are receiving (such as by using a placebo in a medication study) to avoid this knowledge biasing their perceptions and behaviors and thus the outcome of the study.Experimental manipulation refers to manipulating an independent variable in a study (for instance, giving smokers a cessation program) instead of just observing an association without conducting any intervention (examining the relationship between exercise and smoking behavior).Study protocol refers to following specific procedures for the administration of a treatment so as not to introduce any effects of, for example, doing things differently with one group of people versus another group of people. How Does Random Selection Work? Factors That Threaten Internal Validity Just as there are many ways to ensure that a study is internally valid, there is also a list of potential threats to internal validity that should be considered when planning a study.?? Confounding refers to a situation in which changes in an outcome variable can be thought to have resulted from some third variable that is related to the treatment that you administered.Historical events may influence the outcome of studies that occur over a period of time. Examples of these events might include a change in political leader or natural disaster that influences how study participants feel and act.Maturation refers to the impact of time as a variable in a study. If a study takes place over a period of time in which it is possible that participants naturally changed in some way (grew older, became tired), then it may be impossible to rule out whether effects seen in the study were simply due to the effect of time.Testing refers to the effect of repeatedly testing participants using the same measures. If you give someone the same test three times, isnt it likely that they will do better as they learn the test or become used to the testing process so that they answer diffe rently?Instrumentation refers to the impact of the actual testing instruments used in a study on how participants respond. While it may sound unusual, its possible to prime participants in a study in certain ways with the measures that you use, which causes them to react in a way that is different than they would have otherwise.Statistical regression refers to the natural effect of participants at extreme ends of a measure falling in a certain direction just due to the passage of time rather than the effect of an intervention.Attrition refers to participants dropping out or leaving a study, which means that the results are based on a biased sample of only the people who did not choose to leave (and possibly who all have something in common, such as higher motivation).Diffusion refers to the treatment in a study spreading from the treatment group to the control group through the groups interacting and talking with or observing one another. This can also lead to another issue called r esentful demoralization, in which a control group tries less hard because they feel resentful over the group that they are in.Experimenter bias refers to an experimenter behaving in a different way with different groups in a study, which leads to an impact on the results of this study (and is eliminated through blinding). External Validity External validity refers to how well the outcome of a study can be expected to apply to other settings. In other words, this type of validity refers to how generalizable the findings are. For instance, do the findings apply to other people, settings, situations, and time periods? Ecological validity, an aspect of external validity, refers to whether a studys findings can be generalized to the real world. While rigorous research methods can ensure internal validity, external validity, on the other hand, may be limited by these methods. Another term called transferability relates to external validity and refers to the qualitative research design. Transferability refers to whether results transfer to situations with similar characteristics. Factors that Improve External Validity What can you do to improve the external validity of your study? Inclusion and exclusion criteria should be used to ensure that you have clearly defined the population that you are studying in your research.Psychological realism refers to making sure that participants are experiencing the events of a study as a real event and can be achieved by telling them a cover story about the aim of the study. Otherwise, in some cases, participants might behave differently than they would in real life if they know what to expect or know what the aim of the study is.Replication refers to conducting the study again with different samples or in different settings to see if you get the same results. When many studies have been conducted, meta-analysis can also be used to determine if the effect of an independent variable is reliable (based on examining the findings of a large number of studies on one topic).Field experiments can also be used in which you conduct a study outside the laboratory in a natural setting.Reprocessing or calibration refers to using statis tical methods to adjust for problems related to external validity. For example, if a study had uneven groups for some characteristic (such as age), reweighting might be used. Factors That Threaten External Validity External validity is threatened when a study does not take into account the interactions of variables in the real world.?? Situational factors such as time of day, location, noise, researcher characteristics, and how many measures are used may affect the generalizability of findings.Pre- and post-test effects refer to the situation in which the pre- or post-test is in some way related to the effect seen in the study, such that the cause-and-effect relationship disappears without these added tests.Sample features refer to the situation in which some feature of the particular sample was responsible for the effect (or partially responsible), leading to limited generalizability of the findings.Selection bias refers to the problem of differences between groups in a study that may relate to the independent variable (once again, something like motivation or willingness to take part in the study, specific demographics of individuals being more likely to take part in an online survey).?? This can also be considered a threat to internal validity. Similarities and Differences Internal and external validity are like two sides of the same coin. You can have a study with good internal validity, but overall it could be irrelevant to the real world. On the other hand, you could conduct a field study that is highly relevant to the real world, but that doesnt have trustworthy results in terms of knowing what variables caused the outcomes that you see. Similarities What are the similarities between internal and external validity? They are both factors that should be considered when designing a study, and both have implications in terms of whether the results of a study have meaning. Both are not either/or concepts, and so you will always be deciding to what degree your study performs in terms of both types of validity. Each of these concepts is typically reported in a research article that is published in a scholarly journal. This is so that other researchers can evaluate the study and make decisions about whether the results are useful and valid. Differences The essential difference between internal and external validity is that internal validity refers to the structure of a study and its variables while external validity relates to how universal the results are.?? There are further differences between the two as well. Internal Validity Focus on accuracy and strong research methods Controls extraneous variables Conclusions are warranted Eliminates alternative explanations External Validity Results translate to world at large Findings are generalizable Outcomes apply to practical situations Results can be translated into another context Internal validity focuses on showing a difference that is due to the independent variable alone, whereas external validity results can be translated to the world at large. Examples An example of a study with good internal validity would be if a researcher hypothesizes that using a particular mindfulness app will reduce negative mood. To test this hypothesis, the researcher randomly assigns a sample of participants to one of two groups: those who will use the app over a defined period, and those who engage in a control task. The researcher ensures that there is no systematic bias in how participants are assigned to the groups, and also blinds his research assistants to the groups the students are in during experimentation. A strict study protocol is used that outlines the procedures of the study. Potential confounding variables are measured along with mood, such as the participants socioeconomic status, gender, age, among other factors. If participants drop out of the study, their characteristics are examined to make sure there is no systematic bias in terms of who stays in the study. An example of a study with good external validity would be in the above example, the researcher also ensured that the study had external validity by having participants use the app at home rather than in the laboratory. The researcher clearly defines the population of interest and choosing a representative sample, and he/she replicates the study for different technological devices. A Word From Verywell Setting up an experiment so that it has sound internal and external validity involves being mindful from the start about factors that can influence each aspect of your research. Its best to spend extra time designing a structurally sound study that has far-reaching implications rather than to quickly rush through the design phase only to discover problems later on. Only when both internal and external validity are high can strong conclusions be made about your results. An Overview of the Scientific Method

The Success Of The American Dream - 942 Words

The term â€Å"American Dream† is considered as an ideal term and has many interpretations. But basically â€Å"American Dream† is defined as the life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness of the people living in America. Lots of people immigrate to America in search of â€Å"American Dream†. They come in America to fulfil their â€Å"American Dream† which is composed of freedom, security and most importantly, opportunities. America is considered as the land of opportunities and the large availability of the opportunities make people work harder and push their limits and fulfil their goals. Anybody can hope for bigger and can achieve their dream through the determination and hard work in America. Gaining plenty of money can be considered as a measure of success, but it is not the only factor that measures the success. The fulfilment of the dreams of an individual, the increment of the name and fame of an individual and most importantly the achievement of t he goals that is set are also the important aspects that can be used to measure success. The idea of â€Å"American Dream† is unique to America and the â€Å"American Dream† is one of the greatest factor that makes America distinct and great nation in the world. But there are various versions of â€Å"American Dream’s† which can be seen in most of the developed countries. The Canadian dream, Scandinavian dream and the British dream also exist, but these countries don’t have any broad ambitions and visions of the good life clearly and aren’t exactly the sameShow MoreRelatedThe Success Of The American Dream1092 Words   |  5 Pages When many cultures and ethnicities come to American they come for the get the opportunity the American offer. That is the American dream. Many people want to live and work hard to make it the top of the socio-economic ladder and have a chance to live. However, for many people they say it’s hard to climb t hat ladder due to many circumstances that hold them back. From poverty, college debt, inequality many Americans think the dream is not attainable. Nevertheless, there is are many ways to overturnRead MoreThe Success Of The American Dream767 Words   |  4 PagesThe American dream is based on the idea that, â€Å"America where no matter who you are, no matter what you look like, no matter where you come from, no matter what your last name is, no matter who you love, you can make it here if you try.† (97). While United States was built on this idea, it is becoming harder and harder for people to move up in social status because of the inequality. Obtaining success in life used to be considered equal for all regardless of background. If you worked hard enough andRead MoreSuccess As One Of The American Dream1137 Words   |  5 PagesWittlake 28 April 2015 Success as One of The American Dream When we hear the word â€Å"success†, we often think of wealth and money. To some people, the embodiment of being success is earning a lot of money. In fact, the concept of success is primarily based on how much money a person earns. However, each person views the definition of success differently. One way to define success is something that has more to do with flash than it does with substance. John Wooden, an American basketball player andRead MoreThe American Dream Through Success And Social Mobility1405 Words   |  6 PagesWhen most people think of the American Dream they often visualize the typical white fence, the two children, and an overall perfect family. When people think of the American Dream they think of the dream jobs which consist of being a doctor, lawyer, or a widely known talk show host. The people who have the voice determine what is ideal in society and what isn’t. They try to sell you this pitch that the American Dream is obtainable and what you put in to the system, you get out; This is also knowRead MoreAmerican Dream : Resources And Competency Are Recipes For Success Essay1587 Words   |  7 PagesAmerican Dream: Resources and Competency are Recipes for Success American Dream as defined by Merriam-Webster online as â€Å"an American social ideal that stresses egalitarianism and especially material prosperity.† What is the American Dream to you? Is it having a stable and a high-paying job? How about owning a beautiful house, car, and bank account? Perhaps, your definition of the American Dream is being the founder and owner of a multi-billion dollar business empire that has businesses in everyRead MoreThe American Dream: Freedom, Hard Work Guarantees Success and Less Racism868 Words   |  4 Pageswitness an African American get up and move to the back of a bus for a Caucasian? No, that is not the case anymore. America is a better country now. In source E it says, â€Å"The chair in Washington sat had a sun, and the question was asked, is it rising or setting?† This quote questions whether or not America is falling apart or getting better. The American Dream is an ideal that has changed over time and is achievable becaus e of freedom, the idea that hard work guarantees success, and less racismRead MoreThe American Dream As An Idea Of Achieving Success And Wealth Through The Process Of Creativity1050 Words   |  5 PagesCultural Acceptance The American Dream serves as an idea of achieving success and wealth through the process of creativity, perseverance, and determination. In â€Å"American Dreamer,† Bharti Mukherjee explores three different cultures and explains her experience with each one. Through the difficulties within each culture, she builds on her personal identity along with her cultural identity. Because of the exploration of different places, Mukherjee discovers her cultural identity. Because of the strictRead MoreThe American Dream1424 Words   |  6 PagesThe idea of the American Dream can be first traced back to a book called The Epic of America by author James Truslow, where he states, â€Å"The American Dream is that dream of a land in which life should be better, richer and fuller for everyone, with opportunity for each according to ability or achievement.† This idea of better opportunity really summarizes the goal of many early American immigrants as they traveled from faraway lands in hopes of a better future. Many would say this idea of prosperityRead MoreThe American Dream Is A Flawed Concept911 Words   |  4 PagesThe American Dream is a flawed concept, a deceptive motivator, which promotes fantasy and unrealistic capitalist goals (ideals) of success, while disregarding the immense costs. The American Dream, conceptualized among early American frontiersmen deeply impacted societal thinking and motivation. America meant â€Å"more†. More ideas, more possibilities, more space, more land, and finally, more success. This concept is timeless for Americans and aspiring American citizens. The American Dream can be brokenRead MoreThe American Dream in Death of a Salesman and The Great Gatsby1238 Words   |  5 PagesSince Columbus made land, people have been searching for the â€Å"American Dream†. Many people have their own idea and ideas that have changed over a period of time, but what exactly is the â€Å"American Dream† defined as .Origins of the dream have been rooted in the pioneering mentality of the eighteenth and nineteenth century immigrants, most who came to America because of a promise for a new and better life. The American Dream was sought through hard work and determination. After the time of the World

Cadbury Case Study Free Essays

INTRODUCTION TO MARKETING (BHO1171) – Sem 2, 2012 Individual Case Study (15%) Due Date: Week 7 (29/8/2012, Wednesday 5pm) Students will be evaluated on how well they analyze the case study by applying the right theories and concepts. The case topic is â€Å"Chocolate consumers feel guilty for the wrong reasons†. At the end of the case study, there are a number of questions in which students need to find answers and justifications. We will write a custom essay sample on Cadbury Case Study or any similar topic only for you Order Now Students need to write a formal business report with a length of 2000 words using 12 pt fonts and 1. 5 spacing. The report must be handed in Week 7 (refer to the due date stated above). Please do not only focus on the article and the texts in getting the answers. Students are advised to refer to at least four (4) academic journals, with additions of materials from newspapers, magazines and Internet websites in analyzing and interpreting the case study questions. They need to acknowledge any borrowed citations or any information under reference lists by using Harvard Referencing System (Please refer to Communication Skills Handbook). Your report must be submitted to Turnitin and cleared. The allowable percentage of match is 25%. Upon uploading, please exclude the table of content, reference and bibliography lists. Do not forget to  attach together the first page of the Turnitin digital receipt on top of the hardcopy of your assignment. PLEASE DO NOT SHARE YOUR ANSWERS AND REFERENCES WITH YOUR FRIENDS. ASSIGNMENTS WITH HIGH PERCENTAGE OF MATCH (BASED ON TURNITIN REPORT) WILL BE PENALIZED! Sample of a Business Report (with word limits as an approximate guide for each section) Declaration Form† Cover Page (can be downloaded from ELearn) Turnitin digital receipt (first page) Cover Page †¢ Report Title: Individual Case Study – â€Å"Chocolate consumers feel guilty for the wrong reasons† †¢ Prepared for: Name of Lecturer Tutor Victoria University †¢ Prepared/Written by:Student Name VU ID No. †¢ Date of Submission: †¢ Tutorial Group: Executive Summary †¢ Inclusive of the:Introduction of the report Content of the report Conclusion and recommendations of the report †¢ Should be written only after analysis is completed. †¢ Do not repeat by using the same sentences and words as the ones used in the report. †¢ Must spell out and explain the summary instead of just â€Å"out-lining† it. Should not be exceeding one page length and paragraphing is encouraged. †¢ Guide – Approximate word count = 300 – 400 Table of Contents †¢ Titles and subtitles †¢ Page numbers †¢ Appendices (if attached) †¢ Must be typed and not handwritten 1. 0 Introduction (Must include thes e four main components) †¢ Purpose of writing the report †¢ Short summary of the case study †¢ Relevant marketing theory definition and explanation (Briefly) †¢ Guide – Approximate word count =300 – 400 (Make use of paragraphs) 2. 0 Problems/issues Identification 3. 0 Analysis †¢ No Assumptions and No own opinions! Only proven facts will be accepted. Every statement made must be referenced and listed under bibliography page and reference list. †¢ Do not use â€Å"I†, â€Å"We† when writing reports. Do not personalize the report but instead use third party language. †¢ Guide – Approximate word count =500 – 600 4. 0 Recommendations/Choices of solutions †¢ List the courses of action, which, the writer, think, is the most appropriate to the firm †¢ Be specific and not general in giving suggestions. †¢ Must be related to the facts mentioned in the case study article. †¢ Guide – Approximate word count =400 . 0 Conclusion †¢ Brief presentation of the major findings that have been discovered within the content of the report. (Do not repeat the things you have mentioned in the content because a summary IS NOT a conclusion! ) †¢ Guide – Approximate word count =200 List of References †¢ The reference list at the end of the report should be alphabetically ordered. †¢ You are required to refer to at least 4 academic journal articles and also to some numbers of texts, magazine/newspaper articles and websites. (Please refer to the Communication Skills Handbook on how to write referencing) IMPORTANT NOTE! YOU CAN ONLY USE THE ACADEMIC JOURNALS, WHICH CAN BE OBTAINED FROM DATABASES LIKE EBSCOHOST, EMERALD AND ETC. PLEASE REFER TO THE REFERENCE LIBRARIAN FOR FURTHER DETAILS. YOU CANNOT SEARCH FOR THESE MATERIALS USING WIKIPEDIA, GOOGLE OR YAHOO SEARCH. Appendices (optional) †¢ Should be kept at minimum †¢ If it is so detailed and long, put it into the content of report †¢ Give each appendix a number and a title and enter it into the Table of Contents †¢ Do not put in any of the journal articles that you have used for your report Note: 1. Students are to write using formal, business-like tone for this report. This means there should be no usage of â€Å"I†, â€Å"We†, and â€Å"You† in this report. 2. They are also encouraged to write clear and concise expression of English language. 3. There should be a logical flow of sequence. 4. The report should also be free from excessive spelling and grammatical errors. Hence, before submission, proofreading must be done. 5. Please also write the word count at the end of the report (after the conclusion section). INTRODUCTION TO MARKETING (BHO 1171) Individual Case Study (15%) Marking Sheet Semester 2, 2012 CRITERION |Very Good |Good |Satisfactory (met min. |Inadequate |Not addressed / Weak |Mark | | | | |requirements) | | | | |Introduction and |The issue/problem chosen is |The issue/problem chosen is |The issue/problem chosen is |The issue/problem chosen has |The ssue/problem is not |/2 | |problem/issue identification |appropriate and is clearly stated in| appropriate with elaboration |appropriate |limited relevance |identified | | |(2%) |the assignment with justification | | | | | | |Problem analysis and | |Can analyse a range of |Can evaluate the reliability of |Can analyse a limited range of |Fails to analyse information. /5 | |justification (5%) |Can critically review evidence and |information, select appropriate|information using defined |information. Limited only |Fails to evaluate or use | | | |analyse situations using a wide |techniques of evaluation. |techniques. Has given a factual |partially accurate evaluation of |techniques of evaluation, or | | | |range of techniques appropriate to |Appropriate issue/problem is |/or conceptual knowledge base |information using defined |evaluations are totally invalid | | | |the topic. Thorough explanation of |explained and analysed | |techniques | | | | |the chosen issue/problem and is well| | | | | | | |analysed | | | | | | |Formulation of alternatives |Recommendations with reliability, |Clearly explained |Relevant recommendations made |Vague recommendations, limited |No recommendations or are |/3 | |or possible solutions and |validity significance |recommendations which relate | |solutions |obscured by poor mechanics | | |recommendations (3%) | |closely to the case | | | | | | |Fluent writing style appropriate to |Language fluent. Grammar |Language mainly fluent. Grammar |Meaning apparent, but language |Meaning unclear /or grammar |/2 | |English expression |document. Grammar spelling |spelling accurate |spelling mainly accurate |not always fluent. Grammar /or |/or spelling contain frequent | | |(sentence/paragraph |accurate | | |spelling contain errors |errors | | |construction, spelling, | | | | | | | |grammar and punctuation) (2%)| | | | | | | |Use of relevant references | |Demonstrates wide range of |Uses some appropriate literature |Uses only very limited |Fails to use relevant literature|/3 | |and referencing in written |Demonstrates wide range of reading |reading from a variety of |material in the assignment. |appropriate literature material |material in the assignment. | | |report (3%) |including from academic peer |credible sources. Referencing |Referencing is mainly accurate. |in the assignment. Some attempt |Referencing is absent/ | | | |reviewed journals in the appropriate|is mainly accurate | |at referencing. unsystematic | | | |area. Referencing is consistently | | | | | | | |accurate both within at end of | | | | | | | |document | | | | | | ———————– TOTAL: /15 How to cite Cadbury Case Study, Free Case study samples

Politics of Subsidies and World Trade

Table of Contents Introduction Definition of Subsidies Need for Subsidies Impacts of Subsidies Addressing the Subsidies Issue Discussion and Conclusion References Introduction The modern world is characterized by unprecedented levels of interaction between people of different nations and cultures. This phenomena has been promoted by globalization, which is a process typified by the immense integration of economies and cultures.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Politics of Subsidies and World Trade specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More As globalization has increased, the volume of international trade has risen with all nations in the world expanding their list of international trade partners. To promote fairness in international trade, various trade-governing bodies have been established to deal with trade rules among nations. One of the issues that these trade-governing bodies such as the World trade Organ ization (WTO) have had to deal with is subsidies. Most nations regard subsidies as important policy instruments for ensuring their economic well-being in a competitive world market. However, economists contend that subsidies lead to many negative results and adversely affect world trade. This paper will discuss the politics of subsidies and world trade so as to demonstrate that while subsidies have positive and negative impacts, pervasive subsidization is harmful to world trade. Definition of Subsidies The WTO defines a subsidy as â€Å"a financial contribution by a government or any public body within the territory of a Member† (Ryan, 2006, p. 126). Subsidies may be implemented when the government is involved in the direct transfer of such funds as grants or loans to an industry or when the government forgoes taxes that had already been accrued by an industry. Subsidization can also occur when the government provides goods or services that do are not necessary for the entire public but rather beneficial for specific industries. Ryan (2006) states that another way in which subsidies can exist is if a government reduces the price of a primary product with the aim of giving the country a greater share of the export. Whatever the form they take, subsidies represent assistance from the government to producers or distributors in specific industries. Need for Subsidies Subsidies are an important policy instrument in the international trade system. They provide individual governments with the means through which to pursue industrial development and ensure the livelihoods of their citizens. Subsidies help to prevent the decline of an industry due to intense external competition or high production costs (Anderson, 2010). World trade has exposed local producers in most countries to immense pressure. Sectors such as agricultural production in developed countries have faced stiff competition leading to significant reduction in competitive advantages.Advertising Looking for research paper on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Subsidies are crucial for the industrial development of a country since they enable new technology to compete favorably with mature technologies. Historically, subsidies were responsible for the initial growth and development of commercial air transport (Kim, 2007). When commercial airline were first introduced, they had to compete with well established modes of transportation such as automobiles, ships, and trains. Because of the huge cost of air transport and the safety concerns, the private investors could not succeed in the industry without government support. Huge government subsidies helped the airline industry to develop in its initial stages and become self-reliant. Impacts of Subsidies Positive Impacts Subsidies ensure the survival of vital industries in a country. In most developed nations, the agricultural industry is not competitive since most people are involved in the manufacturing and service industry. In addition to this, the local farmers cannot compete with farmers from developing nations who have low production costs leading to cheap food products in the international market. Governments argue that agricultural subsidies are an issue of national concern since food self-sufficiency is integral to national security. Goodman (2010) notes that food security in the US is ensured through farm subsidies, which allow US farmers to stay in business. Without these subsidies, the industry would collapse and the nation would be forced to rely on other countries for its food greatly compromising the independence of the nation. Subsidies help to ensure stability in the market and protect consumers from the volatility of the international trade environment. For example, the world oil prices are constantly fluctuating due to the changing demand for the commodity. Oil is integral for the energy needs of all countries but since most countries do not have this resource, they have to rely on the foreign oil-producing nations. Through subsidization, governments are able to keep petroleum costs low and stable therefore promoting industrial development in the country (Kim, 2007). Without subsidization, the economic growth and development of the country would be deterred since operation costs for industries would be markedly higher. Subsidies have promoted the development of alternative energy technologies, therefore increasing the likelihood of energy sustainability in the future. Kim (2007) reveals that subsidies have played a major role in the development of solar power and accelerated the adoption of less polluting technology by industry. Subsidies in alternative energy technologies are offered under the assumption that as the technologies mature and become mainstream; the cost of products will move downwards making governmental assistance unnecessary.Advertising We will write a custom research p aper sample on Politics of Subsidies and World Trade specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Negative Impacts Subsidization in the agricultural sector is harmful to the economic well-being of developing nations. Agriculture has emerged as the most sensitive topic in world trade and subsidization. Shumaker (2007) suggests that the sensitivity of agriculture can be attributed to the vast potential for trade that this industry presents. Each country therefore exhibits a drive to maximize the economic advantages available through agricultural trade for social, economic, and political reasons. Shumaker (2007) observes that most developing countries have few opportunities other than agriculture for trade and development and most of their exports consist of agricultural products. In spite of this reality, developed nations engage in subsidizing to protect their local producers. Farmers in developed nations such as the US exert great political pre ssures on their government to sustain subsidization and farm protectionist measures. Subsidies have contributed to the poverty experienced by farmers in developing nations. Rivoli (2009) agrees that rich country subsidies to their local farmers have a role to play in the difficulties experienced by farmers in the third world countries. Due to aggressive subsidization by developed nations, prices for agricultural products are kept artificially low since subsidies lead to an overproduction of commodities hence decreasing world market prices. Anderson (2010) reveals that foreign exchange from farming in most developing countries has been depressed by subsidies by governments of richer countries to their local farmers. This statement is corroborated by Rivoli (2009) who documents that a primary effect of US government subsidies for cotton producers is the increase in supply of cotton grown in the US and a decline in world cotton prices by up to 15%. The US domestic subsidy program puts downward pressure on the world price therefore penalizing other exporting countries. Subsidies promote inefficiencies in the market since producers are not penalized for engaging in inefficient practices. Kim (2007) asserts that subsidies prolong the life of inefficient firms and increase the tax burden on the nation’s citizenry. Subsidies guarantee producers that they will make a profit even if they engage in inefficient practices. The market is prevented from working in its natural way and the producers gain an unfair competitive advantage. Subsidies give unfair advantages to some countries on the international market. The EU and the US engage in export subsidization to promote local production of some goods. While such moves are beneficial to the producers, they lead to trade distorting (Rivoli, 2009).Advertising Looking for research paper on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Producers from the subsidizing countries have an unfair advantage over producers from countries that do not subsidize their products. This unfair advantage created by subsidies has the potential to damage international trade as nations take up protectionist measures in retaliation to export subsidies by other nations. These retaliations might include trade restrictions and imposition of high tariffs on imports to protect the local market. Such measures are against the trade liberalization efforts of world trade. Addressing the Subsidies Issue The negative effects of subsidies present significant problems in the development of world trade. To address the negative impacts of subsidies on world trade, the WTO has a well-defined political framework for resolving issues between countries and negotiating trade rules for the trading member states. This organization also has an Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures, which aims to restrict the use of subsidies by individual coun tries (Ryan, 2006). The WTO has set up rules that prohibit member countries from aggressive subsidization that might hurt other nations. Measures have been taken to address the issue of trade distorting caused by rampant subsidization. WTO member states have been provided with a forum for presenting cases against nations that are considered to be engaging in aggressive subsidization. Using the Discussion and Conclusion Government policy makers and economists agree that international trade is crucial for the economic development of a country and it is one of the ways through which poverty can be eradicated especially in developing nations. However, for this to occur international trade has to be fair and beneficial to all the parties engaged in trading. Most subsidies lead to unfair trade and reduce the economic advantages that world trade might offer to a country. For example, excessive agricultural subsidies by developed nations have led to a reduction of national and global econom ic welfare and led to trade restriction. This paper set out to highlight the politics of subsidies and world trade with special focus on the impacts of subsidization. The discussions provided in this paper highlight that subsidies have beneficial and damaging impacts on the individual country’s economy and world trade. The paper has noted that subsidies are necessary to promote industrial growth, encourage new technologies, and protect local industries from volatile markets. However, aggressive subsidizing leads to trade distorting in the international trade arena therefore depriving third world countries of export currency in agriculture. From the arguments provided in this paper, it is clear that subsidies cannot be dismissed since they are a tool that countries can take to protect their own economic interests and the wellbeing of their citizens. However, steps should be taken to deal with subsidies that lead to negative trade outcomes in order for all nations to benefit mu tually from world trade. References Anderson, K. (2010). Can the WTO reduce agricultural trade distortions? The Journal of International Trade Economic Development, 19(1), 109–134. Goodman, R. (2010). A five-Point Defense of Farm Subsidies. Retrieved from: http://alfafarmers.org/programs/ Kim, K.H. (2007). The Impact of Subsidies on Global Markets. Proceedings of the Northeast Business Economics Association, 12(1), 28-31. Rivoli, P. (2009). The Travels of a T-Shirt in the Global Economy: An Economist Examines the Markets, Power, and Politics of World Trade. NY: John Wiley Sons Ryan, L. (2006). Dogfight: Criticizing the Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures Amidst the Largest Dispute in World Trade Organization History. North Carolina Journal of International Law Commercial Regulation, 32(1), p115-157 Shumaker, M.J. (2007). Tearing the Fabric of the World Trade Organization: United States – Subsidies on Upland Cotton. North Carolina Journal of Internati onal Law Commercial Regulation, 32(3), 547-603. This research paper on Politics of Subsidies and World Trade was written and submitted by user Rowen Washington to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Weaving New Designs Brecht essays

Weaving New Designs Brecht essays Bertolt Brecht was born in Bavaria in 1898. He started writing plays after Germanys defeat in World War One, as he felt the government was disloyal. His playwrights introduced a new style of theatre that sought to redefine the relationships between the audience and performance. The techniques he used to accomplish this theatre are still used in a wide variety of plays and films today. His dramatic statements are studied all around the world and illustrates that the issues he raised prove his theatrical genius. This confirms that the statement Peter Brook raised of Brecht is the key figure of our time and all work today at some point starts or returns to his statements and achievements and emphasises the importance of Brechts Epic theatre. There are countless theories and practices that Brecht is well known for, but the one at the centre of them all is alienation. Using this technique, Brecht was challenging the audience to think on an intellectual basis instead of an emotional one. In his play The Caucasian Chalk Circle there are many scenes that demonstrate Brechts alienation techniques. One of these is on page 161 where Grusha and the guests at her wedding are standing around her fiances deathbed. The monk opens the service with this speech, Meanwhile there are people standing around eating and eagerly waiting for the man to die. This action alienates the audience from the real message of death and the serious pain and hurt that follows. This is cleverly directed as a serious event is portrayed in such a comical scene, where it is impossible to attach to any of the characters because of the lack of feeling they show towards the dying man. Brechts technique to alienate his audience from this scene allows him to show the greed of a mother over the love of her own son. This highlights the social issue of greed and selfishness that defines ...

10 Famous American Authors and Their Best Essays †Pro-Academic-Writers.com

10 Famous American Authors and Their Best Essays What comes to your mind when you try to recall famous American writers? The country has introduced several unique genres and interesting topics to the world, stressing the important role of revolution in the history of every nation. We have developed the list of 10 famous American authors, including their famous essays and lessons learned from their writing. GET YOUR PERFECT ESSAY NOW Writing is not a piece of cake. If you have troubles with your school or college homework, do not hesitate to contact professional academic writers online! How to Create Powerful Essays: 10 Famous American Writers List! Charles D’Ambrosio Charles D’ambrosio does not specialize in novels or fiction/non-fiction books; he always positioned himself as a short story essay writer. It was his Portland State University's MFA Program in Creative Writing,  which helped one of the famous American writers develop his essential reading writing skills. Oberlin College was his second place of education. D’Ambrosio never gives up studying English Language, Philosophy (discover how a Philosophy degree may be helpful), History, Literature, and other related humanitarian disciplines. If you want to become popular one day to see your essays published in The New Yorker, Orphans, The Stranger, or A Public Space, observe the works written by Charles D’Ambrosio to absorb valuable lessons. We would recommend starting from â€Å"Documents† and â€Å"Loitering† essays. Lessons learned: Loss and hardships are worth writing about. When you focus on things that make people sad (hate, injustice, depression, war, death), the readers would appreciate your short story/essay for stressing the value of life. Point to the importance of past events in the life of every human. Do not hesitate to share your personal notes, essays, and documents (in this context, documents mean diaries and other important outtakes, which reveals the nature of their owners. Do you need more hints? Ask these expert writers from the field of academic, creative, business writing to help by creating an inspiring literary piece! Benjamin Franklin Every second American President was a great artist. In most cases, the representatives of the US government dedicate their free time to sharing American values, customs, traditions through writing manuals. Franklin is not an exception. One of the most famous American authors is a known historical figure – a Co-Founding Father of the United States depicted on $100 banknote. His activities cover a broad range of different fields, including literature, publishing, politics, science, inventions, civic activity, diplomacy, etc. Benjamin Franklin belongs to the category of the famous American writers with democratic views. He did not release many novels or books; Franklin has established a lot of short stories and essays dedicated to the free, independent land. Since 1776, the moods of the American authors changed to more optimistic and confident. The main purpose of Franklin in his essays was to utilize economic benefits and flee oppressive governmental regimes. Do you need the most distinguished works of Franklin? They contain â€Å"Advice on the Choice of a Mistress†,  Ã¢â‚¬Å"The Art of Procuring Pleasant Dreams,† and â€Å"The Temple of Learning,  The Whistle.† Lessons learned: Democratic sensibility remains a popular thing to discuss. The American nation is an exceptional ethnic group made of every nationality in the world, all possible customs traditions, and based on the equality, justice, and freedom. The Constitution of the United States is a powerful weapon to discuss. The topic of the changing generations will never lose its relevance. Cynthia Ozick After his death, another representative of the most famous American writers living today, David Foster Wallace, was disqualified because he committed suicide and his latest works were full of pessimistic notes. He has listed local authors who could continue his activity. Wallace mentioned Cynthia Ozick among the most budding and promising contemporary writers, capable of continuing his contribution to the literature world. Along with Cormac McCarthy Don DeLillo, the woman is the US best living fiction story author. By today, Cynthia Ozick has published seven essay collections. She created several works of short fiction and inspiring novels. She does not have a certain field of interest. Ozick likes talking about love, hate, life, death, the American nation, future, and other things preferred by the modern famous American writers, but she covers different topics, without limiting her interests. There is one subject we can frequently notice in her stories. Ozick loves the idea of the Jewish American lens. The best essays of all time include her â€Å"Portrait of the  Essay as a Warm Body,† â€Å"The Shawl,† and Envy† on the list, and students can learn the following lessons: The tendency to favor the Jewish American lens instead of attacking it. Creating a short story with the next characteristics: self-consciousness, sharpness, wittiness, clarity, and life wisdom. Don’t be afraid to seem smarter than people around! If you need more examples of great essays to study, the best place to visit is the online writing service, which offers FREE paper samples. Roger Ebert Another interesting man from the list of the famous American authors. Roger Ebert has an ability to criticize other written works and movies fairly brought his world recognition. Ebert specialized on movie directing, cinematography, history of the world and US in particular, journalism, and screenwriting. He worked in Chicago Sun-Times until 2013. Roger Ebert became the first film critic to win the Pulitzer Prize for Criticism. If you have a passion for writing argumentative, persuasive, or critical essays/book reviews, you should find and read the best critical works of Roger Ebert. Watch the popular TV show â€Å"Sneak Previews†. Roger Ebert is different from many contemporary American fellow-writers who focus on the dark sides of our world, often praising the depressive moods. Ebert prefers courage, erudition, humor, and humanism. This enthusiastic writer is capable of reflecting the matter of life death in the most optimistic light. To understand the writer better, read three critical essay collections. The names are â€Å"The Great Movies†Ã‚  (2002),  Ã¢â‚¬Å"The Great Movies II†Ã‚  (2005), and  Ã¢â‚¬Å"The Great Movies III†Ã‚  (2010); pay attention to his most popular work titled â€Å"Go Gentle into That Good Night.† Lessons learned: Never give up; there is always a way out! Ebert’s works full of life optimism can be described in a known phrase said by John Keating in â€Å"Dead Poets Society:† â€Å"Carpe, carpe diem, seize the day boys, make your lives extraordinary.† It is important to write more critical essays to become interesting to people. Watch more movie to have several inspiring ideas to discuss in your literary works. Try to cover the never-ending topic of death from the different perspective. Never stop praising this life by pointing to its main values! Zadie Smith Hey, how about including a female essay writer from the United Kingdom on our promising list of the contemporary short story novel authors? We believe the woman who appears in the list of 20 most influential people in British culture deserves to appear on our list of famous writers, even though she is not American. British culture had affected the United States for centuries. Her primary achievement, which predetermined Smith’s further faith as an author, was the degree from the New York University’s Creative Writing Program. She became the professor of the University. In the United States, the novel written by Zadie Smith, â€Å"White Teeth,† joined the Time magazine’s list of the 100 best English-language novels created since 1923. Smith is a brave author. She may condemn things like disrespect of literature, treatment of art in the modern world, and criticize authors who do not fulfill their literary obligations. This extraordinary female author prefers writing novels. Her most famous essay is â€Å"Fail Better,† full of the following lessons: Never generalize things with the help of â€Å"all† or similar words – narrow down, take a part of the topic to make up a specific subject. There is no such thing as a perfect novel. A writing style is the result of the unique personality of each writer + the way this person views and understands the world. Avoid clichà © – breathe a new life into your writing! HELP WITH MY WRITING F. Scott Fitzgerald â€Å"And so with the sunshine and the great bursts of leaves growing on the trees, just as things grow in fast movies, I had that familiar conviction that life was beginning over again with the summer.† F. Scott Fitzgerald, â€Å"The Great Gatsby† Who else but The Great Gatsby, a good old fellow who tried to show the world the importance of love, life, and family values, and who was rejected for being too humanistic? Fitzgerald knew how important love is from his personal experience. â€Å"The Great Gatsby† appeared in the result of the feelings one of the most famous American writers shared with the love of his life, Zelda. Fitzgerald blamed the American people for underestimating the beauty of this life. He tried to recall the significant values in his novels, short stories essays. In Hollywood, Fitzgerald did his best. He developed scenarios scripts for the future films. His popular â€Å"Gatsby† has been filmed several times, having the brilliant modern version starring Leo DiCaprio as the last successful attempt to interpret the way Fitzgerald viewed our world. Not all of his works were good; â€Å"Tender Is the Night† did not obtain wide recognition. The author became overwhelmed and depressed during the last years of life. The most known list of his essays includes "The Diamond as Big as the Ritz," "The Curious Case of Benjamin Button," and "The Camel's Back." Lessons Learned: Love is the only thing, which matters in the life of each person. American society is full of snobs who underestimate the role of love, undervalue the significance of friendship, and do not appreciate this life the way they should. Money has no value when you are lonely. Edward Hoagland Another man who wrote several famous essays is Edward Hoagland. He was born in 1932; this enthusiastic young man from New York revealed his passion for reading writing since the early age. He stated he would like to become a world’s known novelist to his parents. The two preferred genres were a novel and a short story; the two favorite topics he discussed were traveling nature. Hoagland did not want to cover dirty, filthy topics, so he decided to focus on describing the beauty of nature instead of discussing the way society changes and its never-ending conflicts. The list of top famous essays written by Edward Hoagland includes â€Å"The Big Cats,† â€Å"The Soul of the Tiger,† â€Å"Why This Extra Violence,† and â€Å"A World Worth Saving and Christmas Observed.† Lessons learned: Focus on depicting the beauty of nature. If you write about the human qualities, develop one short story dedicated to two strongest feelings that make us humans – love friendship. The world is full of violence; avoid going deep into this topic to give people hope. Ernest Hemingway The list of the most famous American authors of all time has a name of Ernest Hemingway no matter which genre of literature is discussed. Teachers do not find his works suitable for the school/college program. Spend some time on reading his top works to learn valuable life writing lessons from this distinguished man with the rich history. He was curious about studying the way people behave under pressure, the way their moods change. Children will misunderstand the words of the author. It is better to start reading his literary works at the teen or grown-up age to understand Hemingway’s main ideas. Hemingway did not focus on the complicated, strange topics. He wrote about the things men love (e.g., bullfighting, fishing, hunting, and friendship). Papa Hemingway’s list of famous essays is made of the following titles: â€Å"The Old Man and the Sea,† â€Å"The Sun Also Rises,† and â€Å"For Whom the Bell Tolls.† Lessons learned: Symbolism is the best way to interpret your philosophical thoughts. Try establishing such features as the lean writing style, original sense of humor, and try showing the life based on your personal experience. Avoid literary allusions. Virginia Woolf A little is known about this mysterious female writer. She is another female author on the list coming from the United Kingdom. Woolf is the foremost modernist of the XX century + a pioneer in the stream of consciousness (a narrative tool). The girl visited the King’s College London and became the early reformer of women’s higher education. The top short stories created by this known female essayist involve â€Å"Death of the Moth,† â€Å"Eclipse of the Heart,† and â€Å"Devil in False Colors.† You may have watched a film â€Å"Hours† based on Woolf’s story. Her essays teach several lessons. Write how important the life is through the lens of survival evanescence. Apply simple comparisons to make the writing style lucid. Do not hesitate to change from the optimistic voice to melancholic moods in the middle of your essay; the life is black-and-white, and it makes no sense sharing only positive/negative moments. Edgar Allan Poe Who loves detective stories? During the romantic period in the US history literature, a world’s known Edgar Allan Poe appeared with his mystic stories. The man was a writer, editor, and literary critic in one face. Poe is listed among the cofounders developers of the short story essay genres, providing innovative ideas such as making stories gloomy, dark, and mysterious. He developed many popular detective/science fiction works. Poe focused on the things like spirit, organic development, the significance of art, and motivation/inspiration. Start reading his â€Å"Philosophy of Furniture,† â€Å"The Raven,† or â€Å"The Black Cat† to be acquainted with his works. Lessons learned: There is nothing scary about being gloomy in your writing. People like reading about things they find dark and mysterious; it makes them value life more and start believing in the things they can’t see with the naked eye. How to Become the Author of World’s Famous Essays? We hope this list of the best American authors, their top preferred literary works, and the lessons shared between the lines of their stories would help with your writing career. Do you have any questions? If you need a professional writing help, the best thing you can do is to place an order with the time-tested and trusted US/UK academic service, which offers affordable prices!

Employment relation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words - 1

Employment relation - Essay Example Accordingly he found that in US, employment relations is seen as the means through which the workers get rights and benefits which are related to their work and in turn linked to labour laws and social security. The state plays a very important role in employment relations. They either directly or indirectly influence the employment relations in a nation. Directly in a manner by passing different legislation and regulations designed specifically for the benefits of employment relations and indirectly by providing an environment where there are boundaries which are to be observed and taken into consideration when shaping out the relations between employers and employees. The main objectives of the state in employment relations as achieved through the various roles the state act as. These roles are as a legislator, as a peacemaker, as an employer, as an economic manager and last but not the least its ideological role. Over time the importance of these roles varies in employment relations. The main objectives of the state in employment relations are complex at times. As the state is responsible for maintaining stability, to administer the income policies, in time of low employment and acquisition for skills the state needs to be more careful. The state is responsible for maintaining the parity of bargaining power between the employers and the employees/trade unions. The State has the right to make and enforce rules and legislations. One of the most important responsibilities of state is to provide a legal framework and formulate the boundaries and make sure all the labour management relations are conducted within the framework. The State has the right to set the policy guidelines and promotes specific actions and take initiatives that are linked to employees, trade unions or the employers by empowering them, giving them power of social